Anabaptism

Lore & Background

Anabaptists were heavily persecuted by state churches, both Magisterial Protestants and Roman Catholics, beginning in the 16th century, largely because their interpretation of scripture put them at odds with official state church interpretations and local government control. Anabaptism was never established by any state and therefore never enjoyed associated privileges. Most Anabaptists adhere to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount, which teaches against hate, killing, violence, taking oaths, participating in use of force or military actions, and against participation in civil government. They view themselves as primarily citizens of the kingdom of God, not of earthly nations.

Reader's Guide

Anabaptism's significance lies in its radical redefinition of Christian discipleship, emphasizing voluntary faith, nonviolence, and separation from state authority. The movement directly influenced the development of the Amish, Hutterites, Mennonites, and other groups that maintain distinctive practices such as the love feast with feet washing, laying on of hands, anointing with oil, the holy kiss, turning the other cheek, no oaths, and sharing possessions. Anabaptist historiography has been shaped by debates over origins—whether the movement began in a single expression in Zürich (monogenesis), developed through several independent movements (polygenesis), or was a continuation of true New Testament Christianity. Despite persecution, Anabaptist descendants continue to practice their faith, with groups ranging from assimilated mainline denominations to Old Order and Conservative Anabaptist communities that retain traditional religious practices while allowing judicious use of modern conveniences.

Did You Know?

• Anabaptists were heavily persecuted by both Magisterial Protestants and Roman Catholics beginning in the 16th century.
• The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the early Anabaptist movement.
• Anabaptists view themselves as primarily citizens of the kingdom of God, not of earthly nations.

The Baptismal Question at the Heart of the Movement

Anabaptism takes its name from a Greek-derived term meaning "to baptize again," a label imposed by opponents rather than embraced by its followers. The movement's defining conviction is that baptism carries genuine spiritual weight only when a person freely and consciously confesses faith in Christ and asks to be baptized. Infants, unable to repent or make a deliberate turn toward Jesus, cannot validly receive this rite. Early adherents rejected the very term "Anabaptist," insisting that infant baptism was never grounded in Scripture and was therefore null. For them, baptizing a self-confessed believer was not a second act but the first true one. This stance set them apart from other traditions that also practice believer's baptism, such as the Baptists, which trace different historical roots.

Persecution and the Refusal to Conform

From the sixteenth century onward, Anabaptists faced relentless persecution from both Magisterial Protestant authorities and Roman Catholic institutions. Their scriptural reading placed them in direct conflict with state churches and local governments, and because Anabaptism was never established by any state, it never received the privileges that accompanied official religious status. Central to their identity was a literal reading of the Sermon on the Mount, which they understood as prohibiting violence, oaths, military service, and participation in civil government. They saw themselves first as citizens of God's kingdom rather than of any earthly nation. Some former groups that practiced rebaptism did comply with civil society's demands, and while technically Anabaptist, conservative communities and many historians place them outside the tradition.

A Spectrum of Living Traditions

Though all Anabaptist communities share core theological commitments, their ways of life range widely. The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the sixteenth-century movement, while groups like the Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church emerged later, following the early Anabaptists' example. At one end of the spectrum sit Old Order communities—the Old Order Amish, Old Order Mennonites, Old Order River Brethren, and Old Order German Baptist Brethren—who maintain the most traditional practices. At the other end are assimilated mainline bodies such as the Mennonite Church USA and the Church of the Brethren. Between them, Conservative Anabaptist groups like the Dunkard Brethren Church, Conservative Mennonites, and Beachy Amish retain traditional theology and religious practices while permitting judicious use of modern technology and conveniences. This diversity reflects a shared conviction expressed through many distinct cultural expressions.

Medieval Roots and Shared Ethical Commitments

Although Anabaptism is formally dated to the sixteenth-century Radical Reformation, historians identify several medieval figures and movements as forerunners because of their similar approach to Scripture. Petr Chelčický, a fifteenth-century Bohemian reformer, taught beliefs that align closely with core Anabaptist theology. Other antecedents include the Brethren of the Common Life, the Hussites, Dutch Sacramentists, certain monastic traditions, and the Waldensians. What unites these medieval dissenters with later Anabaptists is a cluster of shared ethical affirmations drawn from a literal reading of the Sermon on the Mount. Believers must not swear oaths or take disputes to secular courts, must not bear arms or wield the sword, and must not hold civil office, since government belongs to the world while the believer belongs to God's kingdom. Unfaithful members are to be excommunicated and excluded from sacraments, but never subjected to force.